A Systematic Review of Life Cycle Assessment in 3D Printing Concrete: An Analytical Investigation of Methods, Processes, and Assessment Tools in Architecture and Construction

Volume 23, Issue 158
August 2026
Pages 41-50

Document Type : Original Research Article

Authors

Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, College of Fine Art , University of Tehran, Iran

Abstract
Problem statement: The environmental and economic challenges of the construction industry have made the necessity of utilizing new technologies more evident than ever. In the meantime, 3D printing concrete, as an emerging approach, has a significant capacity to reduce waste, save time, and improve productivity. Numerous pioneering studies have addressed these issues with methodologies and case studies, but there is still a lack of an analytical framework among them.
Research objective: To investigate and achieve a framework that clearly defines the effective method, process, and tool in the field of life cycle assessment knowledge in the discussion of 3D printing.
Research method: The present study, using the method of logical-analytical reasoning and a systematic review of research literature and library research, has examined life cycle assessment frameworks and identified key factors in this field.
Conclusion: The results show that concrete materials, especially cement, have the largest share in carbon dioxide emissions and account for about 52% of the total environmental impacts. In contrast, the replacement of recycled materials, especially in the aggregates sector, depending on the consumption ratio, can reduce these impacts by 24 to 47%. From an economic perspective, this technology also has the potential to save up to about 78%. Despite these advantages, the variability in the performance unit, system limitations, and the limitations of industrial-scale data prevent direct comparison of results. Accordingly, standardization of life cycle assessment methodology and development of real-scale experimental studies are prerequisites for the sustainable use of 3D printing of concrete in future architecture and urban development.

Keywords

Subjects
Abdalla, H., Fattah, K.P., Abdallah, M., & Tamimi, A.K. (2021). Environmental Footprint and Economics of a Full-Scale 3D-Printed House. Sustainability, 13, 11978. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111978
Abu-Ennab, L., Dixit, M.K., Birgisson, B., & Pradeep Kumar, P. (2022). Comparative life cycle assessment of large-scale 3D printing utilizing kaolinite-based calcium sulfoaluminate cement concrete and conventional construction. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 5, 100078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cesys.2022.100078
Agegn, A.A., Regassa, Y., Angassa, K., & Mekonnen, K.N. (2026). Systematic review on 3D printing concrete technology: breakthroughs and challenges. Discover Civil Engineering, 3(9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s442902-00399-025-?urlappend=%3Futm_source%3Dresearchgate.net%26utm_medium%3Darticle
Agustí-Juan, I., & Habert, G. (2017). Environmental design guidelines for digital fabrication. Journal Cleaner Production, 142, 2780–2791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.190
Agustí-juan, I., Muller, F., Hack, N., Wangler, T.P., & Habert, G. (2017). Potential benefits of digital fabrication for complex structures: Environmental assessment of a robotically fabricated concrete wall. Journal of Cleaner Production, 154, 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.002
Alhumayani, H., Gomaa, M., Soebarto, V., Jabi, W. (2020). Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: a comparative study between cob and concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 270, 122463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122463
Alim-Khan, S., Koç, M., & Al-Ghamdi, S.G. (2021). Sustainability assessment, potentials and challenges of 3D printed concrete structures: A systematic review for built environmental applications. Journal of Cleaner Production, 303, 127027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127027
Asprone, D., Auricchio, F., Menna, C., & Mercuri, V. (2018). 3D printing of reinforced concrete elements: Technology and design approach. Construction and Building Materials, 165, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.018
Banihashemi, S., Akbarnezhad, A., Sheikhkhoshkar, M., Bril El Haouzi, H., & Rolfe, B. (2025). 3D printing in construction: sustainable technology for building industry. Progress in Additive Manufacturing, 10, 11729–11762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-01314--025y
De Schutter, G., Lesage, K., Mechtcherine, V., Nerella, V.N., Habert, G., & Agustí-Juan, I. (2018). Vision of 3D printing with concrete-technical, economic, and environmental potentials. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.001
El-Alfi, E.A., & Gado, R.A. (2016). Preparation of calcium sulfoaluminate-belite cement from marble sludge waste. Construction & Building Materials, 113, 764–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.103
Elias, A. (2021). Cradle to gate life cycle assessment (LCA) of 3D printing houses. Journal of Earth Science and Engineering, 9, 13–19. https://doi.org/10.17265581-2159/X/2021.01.003
Han, Y., Yang, Z., Ding, T., & Xiao, J. (2021). Environmental and economic assessment on 3D printed buildings with recycled concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 278, 123884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123884
Hasani, A., & Dorafshan, S. (2024). Transforming construction? Evaluation of the state of structural 3D printing concrete in research and practice. Construction and Building Materials, 438, 137027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137027
Hassan, H., Rodriguez-Ubinas, E., Al Tamimi, A., Trepci, E., Mansouri, A., & Almehairbi, K. (2024). Towards innovative and sustainable buildings: A comprehensive review of 3D printing in construction. Automation in Construction, 163, 105417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105417
Huang, W., Shuai, C., Xiang, P., Chen, X., Zhao, B., & Sun, J. (2024). Assessing the consumption-based water use of global construction sectors and its impact to the local water shortage. Water Resources Management, 38, 6063–6078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s112693-03944-024-
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2025). What are the main sources of CO2 emissions in Iran? Iea. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/countries/Iran/emissions
International Organization for Standardization. (2006). Environmental management -Life cycle assessment- Principles and framework (ISO Standard No. 14040:2006). https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html
Javed, M.H., Ahmad, A., Rehan, M., Farooq, M., Farhan, M., Raza, M.A., & Nizami, A.S. (2025). Advancing circular economy through optimized construction and demolition waste management under life cycle approach. Sustainability, 17(11), 4882. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114882
Kashani, A., & Ngo, T. (2018). Optimisation of mixture properties for 3D printing of geopolymer concrete. In Proceedings of the 35th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC) (pp. 259–266). International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction (IAARC). https://doi.org/10.22260/ISARC20180037/
Kumar, A., Kumar, P., Gogineni, A., Ahmed, M., & Chen, W. (2025). Evolution of cementitious binders: overview of History, environmental Impacts, and emerging Low-Carbon alternatives. Buildings, 15(21), 3811. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213811
Kuzmenko, K., Gaudillière, N., Feraille, A., Dirrenberger, J., & Baverel, O. (2019). Assessing the environmental viability of 3D concrete printing technology. In Design Modelling Symposium Berlin (pp. 517–528). Springer International Publishing.
Llorente-García, J. E., Caparrós-Pérez, D., & Alba-Rodríguez, M. D. (2025). Sustainable criteria within the construction industry. In P. Mercader-Moyano & P. Porras-Pereira (Eds.), Life cycle analysis based on nanoparticles applied to the construction industry (pp. 3–25). Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.10074-79115-031-3-978/
Long, W.J., Lin, C., Tao, J.L., Ye, T.H., & Fang, Y. (2021). Printability and particle packing of 3D-printable limestone calcined clay cement composites. Construction & Building Materials, 282, 122647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122647
Mantha, B. R. K., Sati, A., Hosny, F., Abdallah, M., & Abu  Dabous, S. (2024). A generic 3D printing life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for AEC applications. In Proceedings of the 41st International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC) (pp. 1263–1271). International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction (IAARC). https://doi.org/10.22260/ISARC20240163/
Markin, V., Krause, M., Otto, J., Schrofl, C., & Mechtcherine, V. (2021). 3D-printing with foam concrete: from material design and testing to application and sustainability. Journal of Building & Engineering, 43, 102870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102870
Mohammad, M., Masad, E., & Al-Ghamdi, S.G. (2020). 3D printing concrete sustainability: a comparative life cycle assessment of four construction method scenarios. Journal of Building Engineering, 10, 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings10120245
Mosly, I. (2025). Carbon footprint of global construction industries: A cross-country analysis of emissions, drivers, and the Construction Carbon Sustainability Index (1990–2023). Sustainability, 17(20), 9274. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209274
Muñoz, I., Alonso-Madrid, J., Menéndez-Muñiz, M., Uhart, M., Canou, J., Martin, C., Fabritius, M., Calvo, L., Poudelet, L., Cardona, R., Lombois-Burger, H., Vlasopoulos, N., Bouyssou, C., Dirrenberger, J., Papacharalampopoulos, A., & Stavropoulos, P. (2021). Life cycle assessment of integrated additive-subtractive concrete 3D printing. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 112, 2149–2159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001700-06487-020-
Nerella, V.N., Krause, M., Nather, M., & Mechtcherine, V. (2016). Studying printability of fresh concrete for formwork-free concrete on-site 3D Printing technology (CONPrint3D). 25th Conference on Rheology of Building Materials, Regensburg, Germany. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296817129_Studying_printability_of_fresh_concrete_for_formwork_free_Concrete_on-site_3D_Printing_technology_CONPrint3D
Passuello, A., Rodríguez, E. D., Hirt, E., Longhi, M., Bernal, S. A., Provis, J. L., & Kirchheim, A. P. (2017). Evaluation of the potential improvement in the environmental footprint of geopolymers using waste-derived activators. Journal of Cleaner Production, 166, 680–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.007
Ritchie, H., & Rosado, P. (2025). CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Our Worldin Data. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/profile/co2/iran
Rossi, C., Reitemeyer, F., Heidrich, O., Rybski, D. (2024). Comparison of embodied carbon of 3D-printed vs. conventionally built houses. Urban Findings, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.32866001/c.89707
Roux, C., Kuzmenko, K., Roussel, N., Mesnil, R., & Feraille, A. (2023). Life cycle assessment of a concrete 3D printing process. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 28, 1–15, https://doi. org/10.1007/s113673-02111-022-
Sakthibala, R. K., Vasanthi, P., Hariharasudhan, C., & Partheeban, P. (2025). A critical review on recycling and reuse of construction and demolition waste materials. Cleaner Waste Systems, 12, 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100375–
Sambucci, M., Biblioteca, I., & Valente, M. (2023). Life cycle assessment (LCA) of 3D concrete printing and casting processes for cementitious materials incorporating ground waste tire rubber. Recycling, 8(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling8010015
Valencia-Barba, Y. E., Gómez-Soberón, J. M., Gómez-Soberón, M. C., & Rojas-Valencia, M. N. (2021). Life cycle assessment of interior partition walls: Comparison between functionality requirements and best environmental performance. Journal of Building Engineering, 44, 102978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102978
Wang, Q., Mitsumura, N., Chen, Q., Sarkar, A., Kurokawa, H., Sekiguchi, K., & Sugiyama, K. (2014). Investigation of condensation reaction during phenol liquefaction of waste woody materials. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 9(5), 658–668. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V9-N5668–658-
Yao, Y., Hu, M., Di Maio, F., & Cucurachi, S. (2020). Life cycle assessment of 3D printing geo‐polymer concrete: an ex‐ante study. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 24(1), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12930
Ye, J., Zhuang, Z., Teng, F., Yu, J., Zhang, D., & Weng, Y. (2024). Comparative environmental assessment of 3D concrete printing with engineered cementitious composites. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 19(1), e2369249. https://doi.org/10.108017452759.20/24.2369249
Yu, Z., Nurdiawati, A., Kanwal, Q., Al-Humaiqani, M.M., & Al-Ghamdi, S.G. (2024). Assessing and mitigating environmental impacts of construction materials: Insights from environmental product declarations. Journal of Building Engineering, 98, 110929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110929
Zhuang, S., Liu, Q., Sun, K., Lutter, S., Chen, R., & Liu, G. (2025). Tracking five decades of global sand and gravel stocks and flows in 184 countries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 222, 108460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108460